No formality — but you still need proof
In every country bound by the international conventions, protection arises on creation: no deposit, no notice, no symbol. The absence of a copyright notice therefore never means a work is free. Some systems, however, make registration a condition of suing at all, or of claiming statutory damages. Dating your files and keeping your working versions remains, everywhere, the most useful precaution.
Two philosophies of exceptions
Some systems set out a closed list of permitted purposes: quotation, criticism, news reporting, education, parody. Anything outside the list infringes, however reasonable it seems. Others apply an open-ended assessment, case by case, weighing the purpose of the use, how much was taken and the effect on the market for the work. The same content can therefore be entirely lawful in one country and an infringement in another: guidance written for one system does not transfer to the other.
Terms: the most common mistake
The usual term runs for several decades after the author's death, but the number varies noticeably between countries, and some have extended theirs recently. The practical consequence is routinely overlooked: a work in the public domain where you live may still be protected elsewhere. As soon as you publish online, you are exposed to the terms that apply wherever your readers are.
Crediting is never enough
Naming the author is an obligation where a use is permitted; it is not itself permission. Equally, an open licence is not an abandonment of rights: it imposes conditions — attribution, non-commercial use, share-alike — and breaching them removes the permission entirely. Read the licence, keep a dated copy, and check that it covers what you actually intend to do, including modification.
Facing a demand for payment
A demand is not a judgment. Check three things before paying: does the sender actually hold the rights, does the use fall within an applicable exception, and does the sum demanded resemble what a court would award? Never sign an undertaking not to repeat the use without having it reviewed: such undertakings are typically permanent and backed by a penalty.
The law country by country
The legal framework, the procedure, the time limits and the costs differ from one country to another. Each country below has a detailed page: governing texts, key facts, the actual procedure, costs, where to go and the traps to avoid.
Select a country to open its detailed page.